The impact of the anthelminthic intervention on cytokine responses has been reported elsewhere [20]. We here describe planned observational analyses conducted to investigate

factors affecting the infant response to immunisation during pre-natal and early post-natal life. The study was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of albendazole or praziquantel treatment during pregnancy, with a 2 × 2 factorial design, resulting in fours arms, albendazole plus praziquantel, albendazole plus placebo for praziquantel, praziquantel plus placebo for albendazole and double placebo [ISRCTN32849447] [19]. Using the trial birth cohort, this observational analysis examined associations between PI3K Inhibitor Library infant cytokine responses to BCG and tetanus immunisation, and pre- and post-natal exposure to helminths, other co-infections and other potentially related factors. The study area comprised Entebbe Municipality and surrounding communities (Fig. 1). Women from the study area, in the second or third trimester of pregnancy, were recruited at Entebbe Hospital antenatal clinic between 2003 and 2005 if planning to deliver in the hospital

and willing to know their HIV status; they were excluded for haemoglobin <8 g/dl, clinically apparent severe liver disease, diarrhoea with blood in stool, history of adverse reaction to anthelminthics, abnormal pregnancy, or if already enrolled during an earlier pregnancy. The study was LY2835219 approved by ethical committees of the Uganda almost Virus Research Institute and London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, and by the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology. All participants gave written informed consent. Socio-demographic details were

recorded and blood and stool samples obtained prior to treatment of women with the trial intervention (single dose albendazole 400 mg or matching placebo and praziquantel 40 mg/kg or matching placebo). The intervention medication was given during the second or third trimester of pregnancy (according to when the women presented at the clinic and completed screening procedures). Women received standard antenatal care including haematinics and intermittent presumptive treatment for malaria with sulfadoxine–pyrimethamine. Tetanus immunisation, up to a maximum of three doses, was given during pregnancy unless the woman had completed a total of five doses during previous pregnancies. HIV-positive women were offered single dose nevirapine for themselves and their infants for prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission [21]. Six weeks after delivery all women received treatment with both albendazole and praziquantel.