subtilis

strains MO1099 (Guérout-Fleury et al., 1996), IB1056 (Barák et al., 2008) and 1920 (Edwards & Errington, 1997) with selection for spectinomycin to yield strains IB1106, IB1107 and IB1108. Escherichia coli cells were grown in Luria–Bertani (LB) medium (Ausubel et al., 1987) at 37 °C or 28 °C. Bacillus subtilis cells were grown in LB or in Difco sporulation medium (DSM; Schaefer et al., 1965) at 37 °C. DNA manipulations and E. coli transformations were XL765 datasheet performed using standard methods (Sambrook et al., 1989). Methods for transformation of B. subtilis and other usual genetic techniques were used as described previously (Harwood & Cutting, 1990). Media were supplemented, when required, with ampicillin (100 μg mL−1), spectinomycin (100 μg mL−1), erythromycin (1 μg mL−1) together with lincomycin (25 μg mL−1), kanamycin (10 μg mL−1), chloramphenicol (5 μg mL−1) or tetracycline (5 μg mL−1). Xylose concentrations of 0.05–0.3% were used for the induction of the Pxyl; Phyperspank driven expression was induced using 0.1–1.0 mM isopropyl β-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG). The expression levels of GFP and YFP fusion proteins were determined by Western blot analysis with an anti-GFP antibody (Roche Diagnostics) as described

previously (Barák et al., 2008). The cell cultures, for these purposes, were grown in DSM medium supplemented with an appropriate induction level of xylose or IPTG to mid-exponential phase. Bacillus subtilis cultures were inoculated from a fresh overnight plate to an OD600 nm of 0.1 and grown to mid-exponential phase (OD600 nm of 0.3–0.5) as liquid cultures in DSM. When it was necessary selleck kinase inhibitor to increase cell density, cells were concentrated by centrifugation (3 min at 9200 g) and resuspended in a small volume of supernatant before examination by microscopy. Cells were examined microscopically on freshly prepared poly l-lysine-treated slides or slides with a thin layer of 1% agarose in LB. The cell length was measured as the axis length from one cell pole to the other CHIR99021 and evaluated using Olympus image-pro

plus 6.0. The cells that had already divided but were not separated yet were counted and measured as two individual cells. Cells were counted as two separated cells only when the constriction was completed. The average cell length was determined from at least two independent measurements, each time from more than 200 cells (more than 500 cells together). Minicells were not included in the calculations of the average cell lengths and in the graphs of cell length distribution, and their occurrence was calculated separately. To visualize the cells and septa membranes, the cell cultures were stained using FM 4-64 dye (Molecular Probes) at a concentration of 1 μg mL−1. All images were obtained with an Olympus BX61 microscope equipped with an Olympus DP30BW camera. Olympus cellp imaging software or Olympus image-pro plus 6.0 software were used for imaging.

8 U, from rabbit muscle), NADH (0.25 mM), fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) (2 mM) and PPi (0.4 mM); and for ATP-PFK: GPDH (1.3 U), FBA (0.8 U), TPI (0.8 U), NADH (0.25 mM), F6P (2 mM)

and ATP (2 mM). At the end of each assay, Ibrutinib mw the auxiliary enzymes were checked to be nonlimiting by the addition of pyruvate (5 mM) for the PPDK and the PK assays and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (5 mM) for the PFK assays. Pyrophosphatase (inorganic diphosphatase, PPase, EC 3.6.1.1) activity was determined at 70 °C in the indicated buffer. Hydrolysis of PPi (0.4 mM) was followed by measuring the formation of inorganic phosphate (Pi) in time, in a discontinuous spectrophotometric assay (630 nm), using a malachite green detection method (Baykov et al., 1988). As a negative control, either PPi or the extract was excluded from the assay. To determine the intracellular concentrations

of ATP, ADP and PPi, cell suspensions (15 mL) were collected from the fermentor at different points during growth. Three biological and six technical replicates were performed for each condition. The cell suspensions were quenched with 10 g ice (distilled H2O) and centrifuged (3 min, 18 000 g), and pellets were washed with a cold NaCl solution (0.91% w/v, JNK inhibitor molecular weight 0 °C). After the second centrifugation step (3 min, 18 000 g), the pellet was resuspended in 500 μL HClO4 (30%) and immediately frozen (−80 °C) until further analysis. The supernatants from both centrifugation steps were analyzed for ATP to determine possible cell leakage. The nucleotides and PPi were extracted using a method adapted from Cole Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) et al. (1967). The extraction recovery of ATP, determined according to Meyer & Papoutsakis (1989), was 74 ± 4%. Based on the findings of Meyer and Papoutsakis, the extraction recovery for ADP was assumed to be the same as that determined for ATP. For PPi, it was assumed that losses during extraction were negligible (Drake

et al., 1979). ADP was converted to ATP using PK (1.98 U mL−1) (Sigma, St. Louis), PEP (240 μM), KCl (100 mM) and MgCl2 (1 mM). The ATP concentration was determined using an ATP bioluminescent assay kit (Sigma). Substantial amounts of ATP leaked out of the cell during extraction, i.e. after the first and the second centrifugation step, the leakage was 68% and 3% of the total ATP, respectively. Therefore, the total levels of ATP and ADP (AXP) were estimated according to the following equation: (1) The level of PPi was determined using a Pyrophosphate Assay kit (PiPER™, Invitrogen, Carlsbad). Because of a relatively high Pi concentration of the growth medium, leakage of PPi could not be determined, and so PPi levels were not corrected for possible leakage. The nucleotide and PPi intracellular concentrations were calculated on the basis that 1 g cdw (∼5.5 g L−1 wet weight) corresponds to an intracellular volume of 4.58 mL. The cell dimension of C. saccharolyticus is 0.35 × 3.5 μm (Rainey et al., 1994) and 1 g cdw equals c. 1.36 × 1013 cells (van Niel et al., 2002).

In conclusion, our results highlight the importance of not only starting ART in a timely fashion but engaging the diagnosed population with services and providing ongoing adherence support. In the era of increasing financial restraint, we may need to focus more on our existing patients than on large-scale, Selleckchem Paclitaxel low-yield testing strategies. “
“Dimethylsulfide (DMS) is a volatile organosulfur compound, ubiquitous in the oceans, that has been credited with various roles in biogeochemical cycling and in climate control. Various

oceanic sinks of DMS are known – both chemical and biological – although they are poorly understood. In addition to the utilization of DMS as a carbon or a sulfur source, some Bacteria are known to oxidize it to dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Sagittula stellata is a heterotrophic member of the Alphaproteobacteria Selleck Bioactive Compound Library found in marine environments. It has been shown to oxidize DMS during heterotrophic growth on sugars, but the reasons for and the mechanisms of this oxidation have not been investigated. Here, we show that the oxidation of DMS to DMSO is coupled to ATP synthesis in S. stellata and that DMS acts as an energy source during chemoorganoheterotrophic growth of the organism

on fructose and on succinate. DMS dehydrogenase (which is responsible for the oxidation of DMS to DMSO in other marine Bacteria) and DMSO reductase activities were absent from cells grown in the presence of DMS, indicating an alternative route of DMS oxidation in Farnesyltransferase this organism. Dimethylsulfide (DMS) is a volatile organosulfur compound ubiquitous in marine environments that has been implicated in playing major roles in both climate control and in the biogeochemical cycling of sulfur (Charlson et al., 1987; Bentley & Chasteen, 2004). Chemical and biological transformations serve as major sinks for DMS in the oceans, although the mechanisms and organisms responsible for the biological transformations are poorly understood (reviewed in Schäfer et al., 2010). The biological production of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)

in the environment has been well documented in the literature, particularly for marine systems, and is associated with both Eukarya and Bacteria (Hatton, 2002; del Valle et al., 2007, 2009), although the exact mechanism of the oxidation remains unknown. Various hypotheses have been put forward regarding the oxidation of DMS to DMSO by marine Bacteria, although the purpose of the oxidation is, to date, unknown. Light-stimulated DMSO production has led to the hypothesis that phototrophic Bacteria may use DMS as an energy source in the environment as observed in pure cultures (reviewed in Hatton, 2002). It is also possible that the oxidation of DMS to DMSO is chemically mediated by oxygen-free radicals (Snow et al.

3C), whereas a higher discharge rate of neurons with receptive fields away from the target was associated with a higher probability of an error (Fig. 4C). The effect was present both in the delayed match-to-sample (Figs 3 and 4) and reaction-time version of the task (Fig. 7A). This influence of firing rate prior to the appearance of a stimulus on the eventual behavioral choice is presumably the result of random fluctuation in firing rate from trial to trial, prior to any stimulus information, similar to a bias factor.

This neural correlate of a decision bias has been described in area LIP before, in the context of other tasks (Shadlen Luminespib mouse & Newsome, 2001). Our present results suggest that the effect is specific for LIP and not present in dlPFC, even though the latter area is strongly responding to the task and represents the target stimuli. Secondly, we found that this preferential correlation of area LIP activity with behavior was not present

throughout the trial, but that dlPFC activity began to exert significant influence Opaganib research buy on behavioral choice during the cue presentation (as did activity in area LIP). When the stimulus appeared in the receptive field, higher rates of PFC neurons were more likely to be associated with correct detection of the salient stimulus (Fig. 3C). No significant choice probability was found, for either dlPFC or LIP, in the condition involving presentation of the distractor in the receptive field. This result is similar to the choice probability

of middle temporal neurons, 4��8C which is greater than chance for the neurons’ preferred direction of motion while it remains around chance level for a non-preferred direction (Bosking & Maunsell, 2011). A significantly higher correlation of dlPFC compared to LIP activity on behavioral choice during the stimulus presentation was also detected in the NoGo condition of the reaction-time task (Fig. 7C). Finally, we observed that reaction time was determined primarily by neuronal activity in area LIP; a significant negative correlation between firing rate and reaction time was present only for LIP neurons (Fig. 10). Previous studies have revealed a similar relationship between neuronal firing rate and reaction time for the FEF (Hanes & Schall, 1996). Our results suggest that this is not present for dlPFC, even though robust neuronal responses were elicited in this area, in the reaction-time version of our task. In an attempt to gain further insight into the differential effects of neuronal activity on behavior, we compared the variability of neuronal responses in the two areas. In principle, lower variability of neuronal responses (e.g. in area LIP during the fixation period) may be associated with higher influence on behavioral choice.

subtilis in our query), the zurA locus (similarity to ycdI in B. subtilis, mreA in S. aureus, and znuC in E. coli in our query), lmo0153 (similarity to ycdH in B. subtilis and znuA in E. coli in our query), lmo1671 (similarity to ycdH in B. subtilis and znuA in E. coli in our query),

and lmo1849 (similarity to ycdI in B. subtilis, mreA in S. aureus, and znuC in E. coli in our query). Quantitative RT-PCR analysis confirmed that zurR, lmo0153, and lmo1671 were up-regulated greater than 2-fold in a ΔzurR background (Fig. 4b). In particular, lmo0153 (similar to high-affinity zinc transporter) and lmo1671 (encoding a putative ABC transporter) both contain close matches to the B. subtilis Zur box consensus Midostaurin sequence and will make interesting loci for further study. In conclusion, we have created a precise find more deletion of the gene encoding the regulator ZurR in L. monocytogenes. Virulence assays in mice demonstrate a subtle but statistically significant impact of the mutation upon virulence

potential. The mutation also influences cell size, motility, and resistance to toxic levels of zinc. Furthermore, we identified putative zinc uptake systems the expression of which is influenced by ZurR. Future work will be required to analyze the individual roles of these transporters in zinc transport in this important Oxymatrine human pathogen. G.D. was funded by Science Foundation Ireland under the Research Frontiers Programme (05/RFP/Gen0021). The authors also wish to acknowledge the continued financial assistance of the Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre (APC), funded by Science Foundation Ireland (SFI). We thank Suzanne Crotty for facilitating the electron microscopy work. “
“Campylobacter species are the most common cause of

bacterial gastroenteritis, with C. jejuni responsible for the majority of these cases. Although it is clear that livestock, and particularly poultry, are the most common source, it is likely that the natural environment (soil and water) plays a key role in transmission, either directly to humans or indirectly via farm animals. It has been shown using multilocus sequence typing that some clonal complexes (such as ST-45) are more frequently isolated from environmental sources such as water, suggesting that strains vary in their ability to survive in the environment. Although C. jejuni are fastidious microaerophiles generally unable to grow in atmospheric levels of oxygen, C. jejuni can adapt to survival in the environment, exhibiting aerotolerance and starvation survival. Biofilm formation, the viable but nonculturable state, and interactions with other microorganisms can all contribute to survival outside the host.

Most of the participants (86.8%) self-identified as being from the Luo ethnic group and the median number of completed years of school was 8 (IQR 7–11 years). One hundred and eighty-nine (35.1%) of the 539 women had a positive pregnancy test at some point during participation

in the study. There was no significant difference in the pregnancy rate among HIV-1-infected women (32.5%) and HIV-1-uninfected women (39.3%) (P=0.11). At enrolment the median CD4 count of HIV-1-infected partners was 443 cells/μL (IQR 337–617 cells/μL), and the median HIV-1 viral load at enrolment was 18 225 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL (IQR 4210–72 682 copies/mL). Forty-one seroconversions MI-503 clinical trial occurred during 888 person-years of follow-up, for an incidence of 4.6/100 person-years. Twenty seroconversions occurred among 186 HIV-uninfected individuals in partnerships in which pregnancy occurred (10.8% of HIV-1-negative partners in this group seroconverted), in comparison to 21 seroconversions among 353 uninfected individuals in partnerships in which pregnancy did not occur (5.9% of HIV-1-negative partners seroconverted), click here resulting in a relative risk of 1.8 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01–3.26; P<0.05]. Women who conceived and their male partners were younger, had been together for a shorter time, and had fewer children together than women and their male partners who did not conceive (Table 1). Of note, of the 20 seroconversions that occurred among partners in relationships

in which pregnancy occurred, 12 occurred in women and eight in men. There was no significant difference between the CD4 cell counts (or HIV-1

viral loads) of HIV-infected individuals in the two groups (Table 1). Of the 20 seroconversions Interleukin-3 receptor that occurred in couples who became pregnant, 65% occurred within 6 months prior to conception and during the first 6 months of pregnancy and the remaining 35% occurred more than 6 months from conception (Fig. 1). In Figure 1, the women who seroconverted are denoted W1–W12 and the men M1–M8. In this cohort of HIV-1-discordant couples in Kisumu, Kenya, 35% of female participants became pregnant at some point during enrolment in the clinical trial despite a verbal agreement to delay pregnancy for the duration of the study and despite access to hormonal contraceptives and condoms free of charge. The women who conceived and their male partners were younger, had fewer children, and had been together for a shorter time than couples who did not conceive. While these data cannot distinguish between desired and undesired pregnancies, the demographic characteristics of couples who conceived during this study have been found in other studies of HIV-infected individuals in sub-Saharan Africa to correlate with desire for pregnancy at some point in the future [2,20]. HIV-uninfected individuals in this cohort who were in partnerships in which conception occurred had a 1.8-fold increased risk of HIV acquisition compared with couples who did not conceive.

While ATIV currently is licensed only

for older adults (except in Mexico, where the vaccine also is registered for use in children as of 6 months of age), plans are underway to extend the registration of the vaccine to children and other groups at risk in Europe and elsewhere, to address gaps of reduced immunogenicity and selleck kinase inhibitor efficacy of TIV in those respective groups. Physician and public education are needed to increase awareness of the burden of influenza in tropical and subtropical regions and the potential clinical utility of ATIV for travelers to those regions. T. F. T. and R. C. are full-time employees of Novartis Vaccines. The other authors state that they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“Spinal cysticercosis is an uncommon manifestation of neurocysticercosis (NCC). We present a case of isolated lumbar intradural-extramedullary NCC. The patient was treated successfully with the surgical removal of the cyst. Spinal NCC should be considered in the differential diagnosis in high-risk populations with new symptoms suggestive of a spinal mass lesion. A 59-year-old

Asian American female presented in January 2009 with a 1-month history of progressive bilateral leg pain, numbness, and weakness. The patient also developed urinary retention 2 days prior to presentation. The patient had immigrated from Laos to the United States in 1987 and used to return periodically to Laos, every 1 to selleck 2 years. She had traveled to Pakse, Laos, and then crossed the border to Ubon much Ratchathani, Thailand, in late 2008. Altogether she was in Laos, September to December 2008, she spent her time there in villages and cities, visiting family and friends. She used bottled water for drinking but ate the traditional fare, which included rare/uncooked beef and pork purchased at local outdoor markets. In the United States, she also sometimes ate uncooked beef and pork. She has a history of adult-onset diabetes mellitus, controlled with

oral medication, and is otherwise healthy. Before her recent trip, she had back pain progressing over several months, with some increased weakness and decreased sensation in the lower extremities. The symptoms became suddenly worse, however, the day after returning from her trip to Laos and progressed over the month before her admission to our hospital. Neurological examination revealed normal higher mental functions, optic fundi, cranial nerves, and deep tendon reflexes. She had mild weakness of both legs and the motor power was 4/5 in both hip and knee flexions. There was hypoesthesia in the left lower extremity in L1 to S3 distribution. The sensation of the right lower extremity was intact. The upper extremity examination was normal.

[14] However, if lymphadenectomy

is therapeutic, as suggested by the SEPAL trial, the para-aortic area needs to be targeted by surgery, radiation or both in most (if not all) patients with documented lymphatic dissemination in the pelvis.[9, 32] In these cases, we need also to be aware that para-aortic disease is usually present in the anatomical area above the IMA.[16] After many decades of debate, there are still no convincing data demonstrating a therapeutic role of lymphadenectomy in EC. Why is that? First, lymphadenectomy, like radiotherapy, is a locoregional treatment. For this reason, if lymphadenectomy is therapeutic, it is more likely to improve locoregional control and less likely to affect systemic disease. However, as overall patient survival is mainly driven by the presence of occult systemic disease, in the absence of an efficacious adjuvant systemic treatment, http://www.selleckchem.com/products/acalabrutinib.html it is unlikely that lymphadenectomy will demonstrate any survival benefits.[18] We are therefore in a difficult situation. Patients with poorly differentiated EC (grade 3 or type II) are more likely to present with

occult lymphatic dissemination,[16] but are also more likely to die of systemic disease.[18] But patients with endometrioid grade 1 and 2 cancer are less likely to die of systemic disease and more likely to respond to systemic treatment[51] and to be cured at the time of lymphatic recurrence.[15] However, in these patients, lymphatic MG-132 in vivo dissemination is rare (Fig. 3),[15, 16] making it very difficult to demonstrate a therapeutic role of lymphadenectomy. Adenosine triphosphate Perhaps use of SLN mapping will be helpful for adequate patient selection in patients with low-risk tumor.[38-41] The continuing debate about the role of lymphadenectomy will probably end only when molecularly guided imaging or new biologic therapy becomes available to identify and treat systemic metastatic disease. “
“The aim of this study was to retrospectively report our experience (efficacy/morbidity) with cytoreductive surgery+hyperthermic intraperitoneal

chemotherapy (CRS+HIPEC) for the management of recurrent/relapsed ovarian granulosa cell tumors (OGCT). From 2010 to 2013, six patients underwent CRS+HIPEC. CRS was performed with standard peritonectomy procedures and visceral resections directed towards complete elimination of tumors from the abdominopelvic cavity. HIPEC was performed with cisplatin (50 mg/m2) and doxorubicin (15 mg/m2) and allowed to circulate in the abdominopelvic cavity for 90 min at 41.0–42.2°C. Cytoreduction completeness (CC-0) was achieved in all except one patient (CC-1). Five patients had OGCT recurrences in abdomen+pelvis and one patient in abdomen only. No grade V morbidity (Clavien–Dindo classification) occurred. Two patients developed lung atelectasis, which was managed by mere chest physiotherapy (grade I). One patient developed urinary tract infection (grade II) and another patient developed pneumonia (grade II) – both of which were managed by antibiotics.

, 2009). In our study, tet(40) was located in tandem with tet(O). Sequence homology search showed that the ARGs we identified in this study

were of diverse bacterial origin, including nonpathogenic species such as Bifidobacterium longum, as well as opportunistic pathogens such as Streptococcus suis and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius. Because the potential for gene transfer in the human gut is very high due to the dense microbial population (Kazimierczak & Scott, 2007), it is worth addressing in the future to what extent these bacteria serve as donors, disseminating the ARGs to other bacteria, especially the incoming pathogenic bacteria. The LY2109761 fosmid-based method has some potential disadvantages in ARG screening. Genes on smaller plasmids (< 30 kb) might not be represented in the metagenomic library. Moreover, only ARGs that are properly expressed in E. coli with their own promoters will be identified. However, the fosmid-based

method also has advantages. The larger insert size increases the likelihood selleck screening library of cloning complete ARGs. In fact, nearly one-third of resistant fosmid clones could not be subcloned, even after several trials. This could be because different vectors were used for cloning (pCC2FOS) and subcloning (pUC118 or pHSG298) or because some resistant determinants are out of the range of length chosen for subcloning (1–5 kb). Our further work will focus on whole-length sequencing to elucidate the resistance mechanisms conferred by the clones that failed to be subcloned.

It is worth noting that although the human subjects we used in this study were not exposed to antibiotic treatment for at least http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/Gefitinib.html 6 months prior to sampling, we cannot exclude their antibiotic consumption history. As antibiotic-resistant strains can persist in the human host environment in the absence of selective pressure for a long time (Jernberg et al., 2010), the ARGs we identified cannot be considered intrinsic; they are probably the results of selective pressure conferred by antibiotics that the gut microbes previously encountered and somehow managed to maintain in the gut. In summary, we constructed a metagenomic library from four human gut microbiota and screened for ARGs, uncovering diverse new genes, including a new kanamycin resistance gene fusion. This work helps us to further understand the ARG reservoir of the human gut microbiota, and we believe that other new ARGs will be mined from human gut in the near future. However, to what degree these ARGs in our gut are linked to the potential emergence and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes in human pathogens is unclear. This work was supported in part by the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program grants 2007CB513002 and 2009CB522605). Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors.

, 2001; Peretz et al., 2001; Itoh et al., 2003, 2010; Foss et al., 2007; Bidelman & Krishnan, 2009, 2011; Minati et al., 2009; Fujisawa & Cook, 2011). A region crucial to central processing during consonance/dissonance

is probably the inferior colliculus (IC). It is well documented that the IC, a prominent subcortical auditory relay, acts in a similar manner to the Selleckchem Pexidartinib critical bands of the cochlea (Merzenich & Reid, 1974; Schreiner & Langner, 1997). The majority of neurons in the central nucleus of the IC respond to binaural stimulation, with response characteristics that appear to be appropriate for the encoding of consonance and dissonance (Brückner & Rübsamen, 1995; Kuwada et al., 1997; Leroy & Wenstrup, 2000; McKinney et al., 2001; Bidelman & Krishnan, Everolimus 2009). Despite findings suggesting a role of central processing

in the perception of consonance/dissonance, results obtained from a model of cat auditory nerve have indicated that sensory consonance/dissonance may be mediated by general cochlear and peripheral neural mechanisms basic to the auditory system (Bidelman & Heinz, 2011), identifying effects that were probably independent of musical training, long-term enculturation, and memory/cognitive capacity. The degree of dissonance correlates strongly with the percept of valence (pleasantness/unpleasantness). Hence the valence can be used to indirectly measure the perception of dissonance. Valence judgments index the perception of dissonance reliably in Western musicians, who are exposed to consonance/dissonance during their professional training, but also in Western non-musicians (Bugg, 1933; Plomp & Levelt, 1965; Blood et al., 1999). This is especially true for musical polyphonic stimuli where several chords

are presented in a sequence. Correlation of valence percept and degree of dissonance has even been observed in listeners never exposed to Western music (Fritz et al., 2009), which indicates that this is universally perceived and thus may correspond to some aspect Idoxuridine of the organisation of the auditory pathway. In the current study, we aimed to test behaviorally whether the cochlea is involved in the perception of dissonance in musical pieces that were more naturalistic than investigated in previous experiments. For this purpose, we dichotically presented dissonant music stimuli of several seconds duration, where a consonant track of a stereo file was presented to each ear, but both stereo tracks differed by a semitone in pitch. In this paradigm, a perception of dissonance arose only when participants listened to both tracks simultaneously – each track alone on each ear sounded consonant. Note that similar dichotic presentation paradigms have previously been successfully used as a means to study the role of a peripheral (cochlear) vs. central mechanism in consonance with simpler stimuli (Bidelman & Krishnan, 2009; McDermott et al., 2010).