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of dominant specie of lactic acid bacteria from tomato on natural microflora development in tomato puree. Food Control 2007, 18:594–600.CrossRef 34. Guan TTY, Blank G, Holley RA: Survival of pathogenic bacteria in pesticide solutions and on treated tomato plants. J Food Protect 2005, 68:296–304. 35. Mavromatis K, Ivanova N, Barry K, Shapiro H, Goltsman E, McHardy AC, Rigoutsos I, Salamov A, Korzeniewski find more F, Land M, et al.: Use of simulated data sets to evaluate the fidelity of metagenomic processing methods. Nat Methods 2007, 4:495–500.PubMedCrossRef 36. White JR, Navlakha S, Nagarajan N, Ghodsi MR, Kingsford C, Pop M: Alignment and clustering of phylogenetic markers–implications for microbial diversity studies. BMC Bioinformatics 2010, 11:152.PubMedCrossRef 37. Wong KM, Suchard MA, Huelsenbeck JP: Alignment uncertainty and genomic analysis. Science 2008, 319:473–476.PubMedCrossRef 38. Quince C, Lanzen A, Curtis T, Davenport RJ, Hall N, Read L, Sloan W: Accurate determination of microbial diversity from 454 pyrosequencing

data. Nat Methods 2009, 6:639–641.PubMedCrossRef 39. Kunin V, Engelbrektson A, Ochman H, Hugenholtz P: Wrinkles in the rare biosphere: pyrosequencing Saracatinib research buy errors can lead to artificial inflation of diversity estimates. Environ Microbiol 2010, 12:118–123.PubMedCrossRef 40. Muyzer G, Teske A, Wirsen CO, Tideglusib Jannasch HW: Phylogenetic relationships of Thiomicrospira species and their identification in deep-sea hydrothermal vent samples by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

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Under

the initiative, the Ministry of Environment of Japan plans to support and proceed with the following projects: (1) development of model programs at colleges and graduate schools, (2) development of a consortium through the partnership of industry, government, and the public, and (3) development and strengthening of networks among the universities in Asia. Sustainability in higher education in Japan In Japan, there are numerous graduate programs buy GF120918 in the sustainability field, such as environmental management, resource circulation and energy, social systems, and risk communications.1 While emphasizing the importance of an inter-disciplinarity, most of the programs are established within the fields of engineering and environmental science. This observation contrasts with international initiatives

on sustainability, which put more focus on social development and quality of life. In fact, in Europe and North America, many sustainability programs are found in the field of social sciences, such as economics, political science, and business/management (Banas 2007). The IR3S attempts to establish graduate programs for sustainability science at the master’s level in the five participating universities.2 The uniqueness of the attempt by the IR3S is that these programs are the first comprehensive programs that integrate different academic disciplines and education networks in sustainability selleck screening library science in Japan. As the IR3S defines, sustainability science is “a new academic discipline that seeks to understand the interactions within and between Selleck Fludarabine global, social, and human systems, the complex mechanisms that lead to degradation of these systems, and concomitant risks to human well-being and security, and then to propose visions and methods for repairing these systems and linkages.3” This definition requires us to employ a trans-disciplinary approach in curricula and to focus on practical

training for sustainability issues. Also, given these that sustainability deals with such vast research areas, the IR3S is aware that building a network among the participating universities is not only essential to meet these requirements, but is also a means to maximize the capacity of the universities. The RISS program, Osaka University Osaka University was established in 1931 as the sixth imperial university, located in the western part of Japan. It is a large organization consisting of 11 schools with ten corresponding graduate schools and with more than 8,000 faculty and staff and 25,000 students. Osaka University has long been strong in the fields of engineering and natural science, devising a number of new scientific technologies related to the environmental and energy fields.

Bioessays 30:1246–1251CrossRefPubMed Berg C, Fryer-Edwards K (2008) The ethical challenges of direct-to-consumer genetic testing. J Bus Ethics 77:17–31CrossRef Borry P (2008) Europe to ban direct-to-consumer genetic tests? Nat Biotechnol 26:736–737CrossRefPubMed Borry P, Howard HC, Senecal K, Avard D (2009) Direct-to-consumer genome scanning services. Also for children? Nat Rev Genet 10:8CrossRefPubMed Borry P, Howard HC, Senecal K, Avard D (2010) Health-related direct-to-consumer genetic

testing: a review of companies’ policies with regard to genetic testing in minors. Fam Cancer 9:51–59CrossRefPubMed Brdicka R, Macek M Jr (2009) Direct-to-consumer genetic testing also in our country. Cas Lék Cesk 148:56–58PubMed Collins FS, McKusick VA selleck inhibitor (2001) Implications of the AZD8186 ic50 human genome project for medical science. JAMA 285:540–544CrossRefPubMed Committe on Energy and Commerce (2010) Hearing on “Direct-To-Consumer Genetic Testing and the Consequences to the Selleck RSL-3 Public Health”.http://​energycommerce.​house.​gov/​index.​php?​option=​com_​content&​view=​article&​id=​2083:​hearing-on-direct-to-consumer-genetic-testing-and-the-consequences-to-the-public-health&​catid=​133:​subcommittee-on-oversight-and-investigations&​Itemid=​73 (Accessed 5 August 2010) Burril & Company/Change Wave Research (2008) Personalized medicine and wellness

survey. Executive Summary., http://​www.​burrillandco.​com/​content/​CWSurvey_​61708.​pdf (Accessed

21 September 2010) Food and Drug Administration (2010a) FDA/CDRH public meeting: oversight of Laboratory Developed Tests (LDTs), Date July mafosfamide 19–20, 2010. www.​fda.​gov/​MedicalDevices/​NewsEvents/​WorkshopsConfere​nces/​ucm212830.​htm#webcast (Accessed 5 August 2010) Food and Drug Administration (2010b) Letters to manufacturers concerning genetic tests. www.​fda.​gov/​MedicalDevices/​ProductsandMedic​alProcedures/​InVitroDiagnosti​cs/​ucm219582.​htm (Accessed 9 August 2010) European Commission. Health and Consumers Directorate-General. Consumer Affairs. Cosmetics and Medical Devices (2010) Revision of directive 98/79/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 October 1998 on In Vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices. Public Consultation.http://​ec.​europa.​eu/​consumers/​sectors/​medical-devices/​files/​recast_​docs_​2008/​public_​consultation_​ivd_​final_​en.​pdf (Accessed 12 August 2010) European Society of Human Genetics (2010) Statement of the ESHG on direct‐to‐consumer genetic testing for health‐related purposes. Eur J Hum Genet advance online publication, 25 August 2010; doi:10.​1038/​ejhg.​2010.​129 Foster MW, Sharp RR (2008) Out of sequence: how consumer genomics could displace clinical genetics. Nat Rev Genet 9:419CrossRefPubMed GeneWatch (2010) GeneWatch slams voluntary gene test guidelines.http://​www.​genewatch.​org/​article.

However, many genes previously reported to be virulence associated were not up-regulated in the presence of serum.

Expression of these genes may require additional signals that were absent from our study. Alternatively, these genes may be expressed transiently in particular host niches, expressed constitutively or the proteins may be regulated at the translational level. In addition, microarray analyses are also limited in that transcripts which are unstable or have a short half-life are unlikely to be measured accurately. However, our results serve to advance our understanding selleckchem of genes which may be important in pathogenesis. Genes of unknown function are over represented in the set of genes unique to pathogenic Leptospira spp. [45], consistent with the notion that Leptospira possesses unique virulence factors. Accordingly, such genes of unknown function that are differentially regulated upon serum exposure warrant further investigation to gain a better insight into their roles in the

pathogenesis of leptospirosis. Methods Bacterial growth and conditions Pathogenic L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni strain L533, and non-pathogenic L. biflexa serovar Patoc strain L41 were grown in EMJH broth medium at 30°C under aerobic conditions. Leptospires were grown to exponential phase at an approximate density of 5-8 × 108cells/ml before harvesting by centrifugation at 8000 × g. Complement and heat-inactivated sera EVP4593 clinical trial Normal guinea pig serum (NGS) (Sigma, St Louis, MO) was obtained lyophilized and stored at -80°C until use. Serum was reconstituted in 1 or 5 ml of sterile ice-cold deionized water according to the manufacturer’s instructions. To maintain almost consistency, the same batch of serum was used throughout. Heat-inactivated serum (HIS) was obtained by incubating NGS at 56°C for 30 min. Sera were freshly prepared before use or stored at -80°C until use. Serum was prewarmed at 37°C for 30 min before incubating with leptospires. Serum bactericidal assay Serum bactericidal

assays were performed as described previously with minor modification [38]. Pathogenic leptospires were grown to exponential phase and diluted in liquid EMJH medium to a density of 2 × 108cells/ml before use. 1 × 107 bacteria were incubated with 50% NGS in a final volume of 100 μl at 37°C for up to 2 h. HIS was used as a control. Samples were taken at different time points and viable spirochetes were enumerated by dark-field microscopy using a Petroff-Hausser counting chamber. The percentage of viable leptospires was calculated by comparison with those incubated with 50% HIS which were considered as 100% viability. The assay was performed in triplicate. The non-pathogenic, complement-sensitive L. biflexa serovar Patoc was used in parallel under the same conditions as a 3-MA clinical trial control for serum killing. Microarray construction Microarrays were constructed based on a revised annotation of the whole genome sequence of L.

4). In addition, 56 % of bachelor’s programs had an arts and humanities course in their core offerings, compared to only 22 % of the master’s programs (Fig. 4).

In contrast, only 33 % of the bachelor’s programs had a research course component within their core, while 89 % of master’s programs featured CH5183284 nmr research. Core course subjects Among the core courses, each disciplinary category contained a number of course subject areas (Table 1), with many categories dominated by one or two common subjects (Fig. 4). In the sustainability category, an introductory sustainability course was present in 81 % of bachelor’s and 85 % of master’s programs. In the core course category of applied sustainability, the topics offered ranged widely (Table 1), but the urban sustainability and energy core course subject areas were the most common among bachelor’s programs (present in 41 and 33 % of the

programs respectively), and the climate (41 %) and enterprise (37 %) core course subject areas were the most common among the master’s programs. Seven master’s programs with a core course in applied Selleck Ro 61-8048 sustainability focusing on climate contributes to the high weighting for this subject at the master’s level; if we excluded the climate course from the Leeds University programs in the analysis, the climate, energy, water, and industry core course subject areas were roughly equally represented (~20 %) among the master’s programs. Within the natural science category, the environmental science and ecology core course subject areas were the most common among the bachelor’s programs

(present in 78 and 52 % of the programs, respectively) (Fig. 4a). At the master’s level, no single natural science core course subject area was found among more than 20 % of the programs (Fig. 4b); climate science was the most common (present in 19 % of the programs, although all of these five programs were within the seven different sustainability degree programs at Leeds University). Within the social science category, Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase the most common core course subjects in bachelor’s programs were economics (59 %) and policy and Selleck Belnacasan governance (56 %). For master’s programs, the most common core course subjects were policy and governance (78 %) and development (44 %). Reading lists Of our total sample of 54 programs, 83 % (45 programs) featured a core course in sustainability. At some universities, the same core course was shared between more than one program, resulting in a total of 32 unique core sustainability courses. We contacted the instructors of these 32 core sustainability courses, and received 25 responses with syllabi, 22 of which included reading lists. The 22 courses with reading lists in our sample are core courses in a total of 32 programs (those marked with an asterisk in Table 2; those which share a core course with other programs at the same university share a letter).

J Mater Chem 2011, 21:10354–10358.CrossRef 25. Xue XX, Ji W, Mao Z, Mao HJ, Wang Y, Wang X, Ruan WD, Zhao B, Lombardi JR: Raman investigation of nanosized TiO 2 : effect of crystallite size and quantum confinement. J Phys Chem C 2012, 116:8792–8797.CrossRef 26. Ohsaka T, Izumi F, Fujiki Y: Raman-spectrum of anatase, TiO 2 . J Raman Spectrosc 1978, 7:321–324.CrossRef 27. Prasad MA, Sangaranarayanan MV: Analysis of the diffusion www.selleckchem.com/products/epz015666.html layer thickness, equivalent circuit and conductance behaviour for reversible electron transfer processes in linear sweep voltammetry. Electrochim Acta 2004, 49:445–453.CrossRef 28. Zhang ZH, Zhang LB, Hedhili MN, Zhang HN, Wang P: Plasmonic

gold nanocrystals coupled with photonic crystal seamlessly on TiO 2 nanotube photoelectrodes SB525334 for efficient visible light photoelectrochemical water splitting. Nano Lett 2013, 13:14–20.CrossRef 29. Murphy AB, Barnes PRF, Randeniya LK, Plumb IC, Grey IE, Horne MD, Glasscock JA: Efficiency of solar water splitting using semiconductor electrodes. Int J Hydrogen Energ 2006, 31:1999–2017.CrossRef 30. Welte A, Waldauf C, Brabec C, Wellmann PJ: Application of optical absorbance for the investigation of electronic and NVP-HSP990 structural properties of sol–gel processed TiO 2 films. Thin Solid Films 2008, 516:7256–7259.CrossRef 31. Park H, Choi W: Effects of TiO 2 surface fluorination on photocatalytic reactions and photoelectrochemical behaviors. J Phys Chem B 2004, 108:4086–4093.CrossRef

32. Zuo F, Wang L, Wu T, Zhang ZY, Borchardt D, Feng PY: Self-doped Ti 3+ enhanced photocatalyst for hydrogen production under visible light. J Am Chem Soc 2010, 132:11856–11857.CrossRef 33. Idoxuridine Cronemeyer DC: Infrared absorption of reduced rutile TiO 2 single crystals. Phys Rev 1959, 113:1222–1226.CrossRef 34. Justicia I, Ordejon P, Canto G, Mozos JL, Fraxedas J, Battiston GA, Gerbasi R, Figueras A: Designed self-doped titanium oxide thin films for efficient visible-light photocatalysis. Adv Mater 2002, 14:1399–1402.CrossRef

35. Ye MD, Gong JJ, Lai YK, Lin CJ, Lin ZQ: High-efficiency photoelectrocatalytic hydrogen generation enabled by palladium quantum dots-sensitized TiO 2 nanotube arrays. J Am Chem Soc 2012, 134:15720–15723.CrossRef 36. Wang XL, Feng ZC, Shi JY, Jia GQ, Shen SA, Zhou J, Li C: Trap states and carrier dynamics of TiO 2 studied by photoluminescence spectroscopy under weak excitation condition. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2010, 12:7083–7090.CrossRef 37. Wakabayashi K, Yamaguchi Y, Sekiya T, Kurita S: Time-resolved luminescence spectra in colorless anatase TiO 2 single crystal. J Lumin 2005, 112:50–53.CrossRef Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Author’s contributions XYC, XFZ, and DDL designed the experiments. CX, XHF, and LFL carried out the experiments. CX, YS, CWC, and DFL performed electrode characterization and data analysis. CX and DDL wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Transition metal doping has been applied not only to modify the photoactivity of TiO2 but also to influence the product selectivity. For example, mesoporous silica-supported Cu/TiO2 nanocomposites MEK inhibitor showed significantly enhanced CO2 photoreduction rates due to the synergistic combination of Cu deposition and high surface area SiO2 support [3]. Dispersing Ce-TiO2 nanoparticles on mesoporous SBA-15 support

was reported to further enhance both CO and CH4 production due to the modification of TiO2 with Ce significantly stabilized the TiO2 anatase phase and increased the specific surface area [4]. However, increasing the Fosbretabulin content of metal dopant does not always lead to better photocatalytic activity. The promotion of the recombination efficiency of the electron-hole pairs may be due to excessively doped transition metal. Besides, nonmetal-doped TiO2 have been used as visible LGX818 chemical structure light-responsive photocatalysts for CO2 photoreduction. Significant enhancement of CO2 photoreduction to CO had been reported for I-doped TiO2 due to the extension of TiO2 absorption spectra to the visible light region by I doping [5]. Enhanced visible light-responsive activity for CO2 photoreduction was obtained over mesoporous N-doped TiO2 with noble metal

loading [6]. Nitrogen doping into TiO2 matrix is more beneficial from the viewpoint of its comparable atomic size with oxygen, small ionization energy, metastable center formation and stability. However, a main drawback of N doping is that only relatively low concentrations of N dopants can be implanted in TiO2. In order to overcome the abovementioned limitations, modified TiO2 by means of nonmetal and metal co-doping was investigated as an effective method to improve the photocatalytic activity. Among the current research of single ion doping into anatase TiO2, N-doping and V-doping are noteworthy. Firstly, both elements are close neighbors of the elements they replace in the periodic table. They also share certain similar physical and chemical characteristics with the replaced elements. Secondly, impurity states of N dopants act as shallow acceptor levels, while those

of V dopants act as shallow donor levels. This result in less recombination Megestrol Acetate centers in the forbidden band of TiO2 and thus prolongs the lifetime of photoexcited carriers [7]. So the co-doping of V and N into the TiO2 lattice is of particular significance. Recently, V and N co-doped TiO2 nanocatalysts showed enhanced photocatalytic activities for the degradation of methylene blue compared with mono-doped TiO2[8]. Wang et al. synthesized V-N co-doped TiO2 nanocatalysts using a novel two-phase hydrothermal method applied in hazardous PCP-Na decomposition [9]. Theoretical and simulation work also found that N-V co-doping could broaden the absorption spectrum of anatase TiO2 to the visible light region and increase its quantum efficiency [10].

The fluorescence dye SYBR Green I intercalates with free siRNAs, resulting in a 22-bp fluorescent band under gel electrophoresis. Binding of PEI-NH-CNTs to siRNAs resulted in reduced availability of siRNAs for SYBR Green I click here intercalation, thus reducing the fluorescence signal [18, 20, 21, 28]. As shown in Figure 8, there was a gradual decrease in fluorescence intensity with increasing PEI-NH-CNT/siGAPDH mass ratios. The migration of siGAPDH was completely inhibited when the mass ratios of PEI-NH-SWNTs to siGAPDH and PEI-NH-MWNTs to siGAPDH were 80:1 and 160:1, respectively (Figure 8). These results indicate that both PEI-NH-SWNTs and PEI-NH-MWNTs could bind and form a stable

complex with siRNAs. Figure 8 Binding capacity of PEI-NH-SWNTs and PEI-NH-MWNTs towards siRNAs. PEI-NH-SWNTs (upper panel) and PEI-NH-MWNTs (lower panel) were complexed with a commercially available positive control siRNA against the find more housekeeping gene glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (siGAPDH) at various Q-VD-Oph price mass ratios, followed by EMSA. Cytotoxicity of PEI-NH-CNTs Human cervical cancer cells HeLa-S3 were treated with various concentrations of PEI-NH-SWNTs or PEI-NH-MWNTs for 48 h to examine their cytotoxicity. Viability of HeLa-S3

cells decreased with increasing concentrations of PEI-NH-CNTs (Figure 9). The half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of PEI-NH-SWNTs and PEI-NH-MWNTs were 23.6 and 40.5 μg/ml, respectively. On the other hand, pure PEI was relatively toxic, with an IC50 of 0.56 μg/ml. At a concentration of 5 μg/ml, less than 2% of cells were viable in the presence of PEI, while 70% to 80% of cells were viable when incubated with PEI-NH-SWNTs or PEI-NH-MWNTs (Figure 9). These results suggest that PEI-NH-CNTs were less cytotoxic to HeLa-S3

cells compared to PEI. Figure 9 Cytotoxicity of PEI-NH-SWNTs and PEI-NH-MWNTs compared to PEI. Human cervical cancer cells HeLa-S3 were treated with 0 to 100 μg/ml of PEI-NH-SWNTs, PEI-NH-MWNTs, or pure PEI for 48 h. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay and expressed as the percentage of the optical density at 570 nm of treated cells relative to control cells. Error bars represent standard Dehydratase deviations (n ≥ 3). Statistical significance was observed at all concentrations of PEI-NH-SWNTs, PEI-NH-MWNTs, or pure PEI compared to the control (0 μg/ml). Transfection of siRNAs by PEI-NH-CNTs PEI-NH-CNTs were complexed with siGAPDH at mass ratios of 1:1, 10:1, and 20:1 and incubated with HeLa-S3 cells to achieve a final siGAPDH concentration of 30 nM. After 48 h, transfection efficiency of PEI-NH-CNTs was evaluated by the mRNA level of GAPDH and was compared with that of DharmaFECT. Transfection of siGAPDH with DharmaFECT resulted in more than 50% suppression of the mRNA level of GAPDH (Figure 10). Delivery of siGAPDH by PEI-NH-SWNTs suppressed GAPDH mRNA expression to 18%, 50%, and 62% of untreated control at PEI-NH-SWNT/siGAPDH ratios of 1:1, 10:1, and 20:1, respectively.

The main reason for cancellation was surgeon’s unavailability

[28]. Changing the operating theatre policy, as demonstrated in this article, allows surgeons to designate and inform the patient more accurately the time of his/her operation. However, it did not necessarily reduce the waiting times to surgery. We feel that provision of a second emergency theatre at all times would be an effective solution to this problem. Patients would be operated upon promptly. This would reduce waiting Go6983 times to ABT-737 supplier surgery and facilitate quicker discharges from hospital, thereby increasing turnover. This would also be satisfactory for the patients; bed management for the elective patients, thereby increasing volumes of elective work load and shortening waiting list times. The increased costs involved in running the second additional theatres should be balanced against the cost of reduced length of hospital stay. Taking an example from emergency laparoscopic cholecystectomy versus elective cholecystectomy after conservative management, the increased immediate operative cost is neutralized by the reduced length of stay and quicker return to work [29]. More detailed cost – benefit analysis involving multiple hospitals and larger number of patients would be required to lend creditable evidence to support this belief. Acknowledgements We thank all

the medical and nursing staff of the wards and theatres of the surgical 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase services for taking care of patients and helping in data collection. We thank Mr Ajit Abraham & Mr Mike Walsh, Consultant Surgeons www.selleckchem.com/products/sc79.html for spearheading the theatre change programme and Ms Ceri Cranston, Theatre Manager for implementing the changes with rigor. References 1. Wyatt MG, Houghton PW, Brodribb AJ: Theatre delay for emergency general surgical patients: a cause for concern? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1990,72(4):236–8.PubMed 2. American College of Surgeons Trauma Program [http://​www.​facs.​org/​trauma] 3. Bhattacharyya T, et al.:

The value of the dedicated orthopaedic trauma operating room. J Trauma 2006,60(6):1336–40. discussion 1340–1CrossRefPubMed 4. The Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths 1990 NCEPOD, London; 1992. 5. Sweetnam DI, Williams JR, Britton DC: An audit of the effect of a 24-hour emergency operating theatre in a district general hospital. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1994,76(2 Suppl):56–8.PubMed 6. Lovett BE, Katchburian MV: Emergency surgery: half a day does make a difference. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1999,81(1):62–4.PubMed 7. Calder FR, Jadhav V, Hale JE: The effect of a dedicated emergency theatre facility on emergency operating patterns. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1998,43(1):17–9.PubMed 8. Barlow AP, et al.: An emergency daytime theatre list: utilisation and impact on clinical practice. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1993,75(6):441–4.PubMed 9. Scriven MW, et al.

Representative cultures of all species are deposited in Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands (CBS) or the American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA, U.S.A. (ATCC). Fig. 1 Bayesian phylogram obtained from the concatenated alignment of tef1, cal1 and chi18-5 loci. See Druzhinina et al. (2012) for details The Longibrachiatum Clade of Trichoderma Colonies typically growing well and sporulating at ≥ 35°C; a diffusing yellow pigment often forming on PDA (Figs. 2, 3). Conidiophores forming in the scant

aerial mycelium and in small, cottony pustules (‘shrubs’; Jaklitsch 2009, 2011) within which long, plumose conidiophores often visible; sterile hairs IACS-10759 supplier present or not in pustules. Conidiophores typically comprising a strongly developed MK 8931 price central axis from which phialides arise singly over several levels below the tip; phialides held in whorls in addition to solitary phialides in some species; often a single phialide terminating a basal cell with a short, spur-like phialide arising as an outgrowth of the basal cell at the septum (‘intercalary phialide’, Samuels et al. 1998). Phialides typically lageniform to nearly cylindrical, often hooked or sinuous. Conidia typically ellipsoidal to oblong,

smooth, less frequently subglobose or roughened to tuberculate. Teleomorphs Hypocrea; stromata a shade of brown or dark gray to black; ostiolar areas in brown stromata often green in lactic acid; part-ascospores subglobose, hyaline, roughened; lignicolous. Synoptic key to Captisol members of the Longibrachiatum Clade of Trichoderma (An asterisk (*) signifies that a species occurs in more than one lead of a character) Species Known distribution 1. T. aethiopicum East Africa 2. H. andinensis Venezuela, high elevation 3. T. capillare

Europe, Interleukin-3 receptor Vietnam, Taiwan 4. T. citrinoviride North and South Temperate 5. T. effusum India, high elevation 6. T. flagellatum Ethiopia 7. T. ghanense West Africa, America, South East Asia, Europe, Australia 8. T. gillesii Indian Ocean 9. T. gracile Malaysia 10. T. konilangbra East Africa, high elevation 11. T. longibrachiatum cosmopolitan/predominantly tropical 12. H. novae-zelandiae New Zealand 13. H. orientalis pantropical, subtropical 14. T. parareesei pantropical, subtropical 15. T. pinnatum Sri Lanka/Vietnam 16. T. pseudokoningii Australasia, rare elsewhere 17. T. reesei pantropical 18. T. saturnisporopsis USA (Oregon), Europe (Sardinia) 19. T. saturnisporum USA, Mexico, South Africa, Europe 20. T. sinense Taiwan 21. T. solani México I.