67 Our findings, in the present study, that Trappin-2/Elafin is secreted throughout the FRT along with other microbicides, suggests that entry of

pathogens to the upper tract may lead to rapid inactivation by the first-line defenders of the innate immune system. An unexpected finding in our studies was that only UT epithelial cells consistently responded to Poly(I:C), a viral dsRNA analog, whereas epithelial cells from the FT and Cx were unresponsive. Previously, we and others demonstrated that epithelial cells throughout the FRT (FT, UT and Cx) respond to Poly(I:C) by producing a spectrum of cytokines and chemokines.11,12,56 Our findings Panobinostat clinical trial suggest a specialized function of UT epithelial cells not previously appreciated. UT epithelial cell responsiveness to Poly(I:C) may be related to the uterus being an implantation site, to protect against potential pathogens that enter along with sperm. As Trappin-2/Elafin has important anti-inflammatory functions,40 and is expressed at high levels in normal pregnant

uterus,68 it may be that this molecule dampens immune responses in preparation for the implantation of an allogeneic fetus. Whether unresponsiveness of FT and Cx epithelial cells is a result of these cells being fully activated in terms of antimicrobial production before exposure to Poly(I:C) remains to be determined. What is clear is that FT cells are selectively responsive in that, while unresponsive in terms of Trappin-2/Elafin, Poly(I:C) Kinase Inhibitor Library manufacturer increases intracellular interferon-β (IFN-β)-induced 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase gene expression of 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase (2′5′-OAS) and MxA, the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) as well as the innate immune factor human β-defensin 2.11 The present study demonstrates that Trappin-2/Elafin is present in CVL secretions collected from HIV-positive and HIV-negative women. We have recently found that CVL from both populations have

anti-HIV activity against X4 and R5 HIV-1 (M. Ghosh and J. V. Fahey, unpublished data). These findings suggest that Trappin-2/Elafin may play an important protective role in vivo against the transmission of HIV from men to women. Furthermore, it suggests an explanation for the low amounts of infectious HIV typically found in CVL samples, irrespective of viral load.26,27 The role of Trappin-2/Elafin in HIV-1 infection could be further defined by studying discordant couples and highly exposed seronegative women. Although such studies will provide important insights, they are beyond the scope of this investigation. In conclusion, our studies have identified Trappin-2/Elafin as a novel endogenous anti-HIV-1 factor of the female reproductive tract. We have established that Trappin-2/Elafin is produced constitutively by upper and lower FRT epithelial cells and that the uterine epithelial cells can be consistently stimulated by Poly(I:C) to produce elevated levels of Trappin-2/Elafin that are inhibitory to HIV-1.