P2Y(1) receptor immunolabeling of Muller cells was of greater intensity following light-induced retinal degeneration, suggesting that Muller cell gliosis is accompanied by changes in P2Y(1) receptor expression. Overall, these data provide further evidence for a role of extracellular ATP in retinal signaling within subsets of retinal neurons as well as glia. (C) 2009 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Low-frequency stimulation applied through indwelling electrodes selleckchem has been used to depress or depotentiate synaptic efficacy. Moreover it has been reported to inhibit seizure expression
and progression when started either during or after seizures. We have recently shown that low-frequency stimulation can also reduce the size of seizure-enlarged movement representations (motor maps) when delivered after 30 afterdischarges that had propagated from the hippocampus
to the neocortex. This study was designed to examine the effects of low-frequency stimulation delivered to the corpus callosum on motor map topography when applied during or after each elicited seizure. Specifically, 15 min of I Hz stimulation was applied to the corpus callosum either concurrent with or immediately following a neocortical afterdischarge that had propagated from the hippocampus. Long-Evans hooded rats were electrically stimulated twice see more daily in the right ventral hippocampus until the first neocortical afterdischarge was elicited. Rats then received low-frequency stimulation which began either with the afterdischarge or following each afterdischarge for 20 additional kindling sessions; a sham low-frequency stimulation group was also included. Afterdischarges were recorded from both hippocampal and neocortical sites, and seizure expression
was documented. One click here to six days following the last stimulation session, forelimb movement representations were derived using high-resolution intracortical microstimulation in the left sensorimotor neocortex. Low-frequency stimulation following each kindled seizure, suppressed behavioral seizure severity and hippocampal afterdischarge duration, as well as attenuated kindling-induced motor map expansion. (C) 2009 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a potent regulatory cytokine with diverse effects on hemopoietic cells. The pivotal function of TGF-beta in the immune system is to maintain tolerance via the regulation of lymphocyte proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Among T cells, CD4(+)CD25(+)FOXP3(+) T regs contain the main source of TGF-beta that suppresses immune responses in inflammatory sites. Defects in TGF-beta 1 expression or its signaling in T cells correlate with the onset of several autoimmune diseases.