The dynamometer was held approximately 45° away from the body with the elbow joint fully extended. Participants were then instructed to squeeze with maximal effort for 5 s while exhaling and the maximum value of three trials was recorded. This test has shown good reliability in women aged 56–90 years (CV 4.2–4.6%) [51]. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (PASW Statistics v19.0). A Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was used to ensure all HR-pQCT data was normally distributed. Means and standard

deviations were used as descriptive statistics. To address our primary aim, descriptive characteristics (e.g. height, body mass, lean mass) were first compared across groups for men and women separately using analysis of variance (ANOVA), with a Tukey post-hoc test used to identify any significant group differences. Analysis of covariance was Epigenetic activity used to compare HR-pQCT outcomes across groups adjusting for body size and body composition, which included the covariates age, height, and body mass. A Bonferroni correction was used to adjust for multiple comparisons. To address our secondary aim we fit a hierarchical multivariable linear regression PD-0332991 supplier model. Predictors selected were those most likely to influence variance in bone parameters [3] and [52], and were entered into the model in the following order:

(1) age, height, and body mass, (2) grip strength (radius only) and knee extension torque (tibia only), and (3) sporting activity. Three dummy variables were created for sporting activity (alpine skiing, soccer, swimming) with the control group serving as a reference category. An Grape seed extract α-level of 0.05 was used for all analyses. Unless stated otherwise, in the next section all discussed differences

are statistically significant at the p < 0.05 level. For HR-pQCT parameters, unadjusted data is reported, while statistical significance is flagged after adjusting for age, height, and body mass. Adjustment for lean mass has the potential to mask differences in bone outcomes across groups when used in supplementation to age, height, and body mass [53], and in our cohort, lean mass correlated highly with body mass (r = 0.768 in women, r = 0.927 in men, p < 0.001). Therefore, lean mass was not selected as a covariate. Furthermore, lean mass that was excluded from the regression model is correlated with grip strength (r = 0.423 for women, r = 0.561 for men, p < 0.001) and knee extension torque (r = 0.430 for women, r = 0.649 for men, p < 0.001). Descriptive characteristics of the participants are provided in Table 1. For both men and women, age was similar across groups. Female swimmers were taller and leaner than soccer players and controls, and also tended to be heavier than soccer players and alpine skiers. All female athletes began training at a similar age (6.5 years–8.