Interventional studies show that after drug cure, allergy may increase at the population level (80,81). Chemotherapy to remove intestinal helminths results, in some studies, in aggravated allergic responsiveness. In a recent double-blinded placebo-controlled interventional trial in an area of Vietnam where hookworm is the most common infection, the anthelmintic-treated group had a significantly increased selleck products incidence of skin allergy sensitivity

to house dust mite or cockroach allergens. This protection correlated with significantly higher levels of baseline IL-10 production to hookworm antigen, with a trend for decreased production of IL-10 after treatment (82). The idea that worm-induced immunomodulation could be used to treat immune dysregulation in the developed world has been gathering support in recent years. A turning point was a clinical trial in the USA, where Trichuris suis, the pig whipworm, was used to treat inflammatory bowel disease. The results of the trial were very encouraging, and the majority

of treated Selleck Copanlisib patients went into remission (83,84). However, the same therapy was ineffective against allergic rhinitis in humans (85). Humans are not a fully permissive host for T. suis, so the infection had to be boosted with larvae every 3 weeks to ensure continual presence of larvae in the gut (86). As a treatment for immune dysregulatory diseases, hookworm may be an attractive prospect – it is virtually asymptomatic in low-level experimental infections (40), it poses no risk of transmission in modern 4��8C sanitary environments and it survives for years within the human host, thus making

continual reinfection unnecessary. British and Australian researchers have used hookworm in seasonal hayfever, Crohn’s disease and coeliac disease, with varying success. The British trials showed that hookworm infection, despite the migratory stage through the lungs, does not exacerbate airway reactivity in allergic individuals; however, no suppression of allergic responses was detected (8,39). No suppression of inflammatory immune responses, as measured by production of IFN-γ or TNF-α, or induction of immunoregulatory mechanisms, as measured by levels of circulating CD4+CD25hiFoxp3+ Tregs or polyclonal CD4+ T-cell production of IL-10, was seen either (8). In contrast, the Australian Crohn’s disease trial led by John Croese showed a strong trend for suppression of Crohn’s disease symptoms after infection (87). However, caveats of this trial include a lack of blinding or a placebo control group, and continued and variable use of immunosuppressants. This trial is currently being extended by Croese and our group, to use hookworm to treat coeliac disease, a gluten-induced enteropathy dependent on a TH1/TH17 response (ms submitted).