Such forested landscapes will be well below their potential C storage capacity and conservation can be reasonably expected to provide sustained mitigation benefits into drug discovery the future. Depending on tree species, risks of natural disturbances and

other factors such as climate change impacts, the landscape-level C stocks will eventually saturate, resulting in high C stocks and decreased C uptake rates, as observed in Glacier National Park. Where old forests that already support high C stocks are threatened by human disturbance or deforestation, conservation can provide substantial C benefits up front, but this strategy must be accompanied by documentation of what the ‘‘business as usual‘‘ management actions would have been in the absence of conservation so that the true incremental climate change mitigation benefit of conservation can be estimated. Our results reveal that the climate change mitigation benefits of forest Obeticholic Acid manufacturer conservation can be heavily influenced by natural disturbances.

Whereas Glacier National Park’s forests are typical of what we imagined national park forests to be: predominantly old with high C stocks and low net CO2 uptake, Kootenay and Yoho national parks forests are not. Natural disturbances play important ecological roles in many forest ecosystems and their exclusion for C management purposes could undermine ecological integrity. Moreover, where disturbance risk increases with forest age, as in the case of mountain pine beetle (Taylor et al., 2006b), exclusion of one disturbance type (harvest) may result in increased risks of other disturbances (insects). Similarly, exclusion of natural disturbances can result in greater risk of future disturbance (Kurz et al., 2008b). Although we found that two of the three national parks examined had substantially higher CO2 sequestration rates than their reference areas, we caution that this result cannot be extrapolated to other areas. In Kootenay National Park, the higher C sequestration rates we found were the result of high average yield (relative to the reference area) and the ongoing C stock recovery from major natural disturbance losses that occurred

prior to the analysis period. In Yoho National Cytidine deaminase Park, the higher C uptake rates we found were also the result of higher average yields, plus the unusual age-class structure of the reference area that contained a much larger proportion of very old stands than the park. Implementing a conservation strategy in a young, recently disturbed forest landscape can be expected to provide C sinks for many years to decades, provided that natural disturbances do not recur. Predictions of changes in fire regimes in the region of the Mountain Parks consistently indicate increased risks of fire disturbances with associated reductions in C stocks and increases in CO2 emissions (Flannigan et al., 2005, Balshi et al., 2009, Metsaranta et al., 2010 and Haughian et al., 2012).