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Human assessments of probability are frequently inconsistent and susceptible to predictable errors. Models of probability judgments frequently treat bias and variability in isolation; a deterministic model explains bias, subsequently incorporating a noise process to introduce variability. These accounts, however, fail to elucidate the distinctive inverse U-shaped pattern observed in the relationship between average and variability in probabilistic assessments. By way of contrast, sampling-driven models compute the mean and variance of judgment estimates in a combined fashion; the fluctuation in results is an expected aspect of utilizing a small representative sample of recalled or simulated instances for probability assessments. Two recent sampling models are investigated, wherein biases are attributed to either sample aggregation further compromised by retrieval noise (the Probability Theory + Noise model) or as a Bayesian calibration of uncertainty inherent in small sample sizes (the Bayesian sampler model). Although the average forecasts from these accounts are remarkably similar, their assessments of the connection between average and variability diverge. These models are shown to be distinguishable by a novel linear regression method, analyzing their critical mean-variance pattern. To initially demonstrate the method's efficacy, model recovery is utilized, showcasing its higher accuracy in recovering parameters than complex methods. Secondly, applying the procedure to the mean and the variance of both existing and fresh probability estimates reveals that the estimates are derived from a limited number of samples, adapted by a prior knowledge, as anticipated from the Bayesian sampler's output. The American Psychological Association's 2023 PsycINFO database record is protected by all applicable copyrights.

Narratives of people who persist in the face of adversity are often heard. Though inspiring, highlighting the determination of others might unfairly criticize individuals facing limitations who do not display the same tenacity. This research, using a developmental social inference task (Study 1a [n = 124]; U.S. children, 5-12 years of age; Study 1b [n = 135]; and Study 2 [n = 120]; U.S. adults), examined whether stories highlighting persistence influence people's interpretation of a constrained individual's decision. Specifically, whether this individual's choice of a lower-quality, available option over a superior, unavailable one signifies a preference for the inferior choice. Children and adults alike, as demonstrated by Study 1, exhibited this effect. Even narratives of persistent attempts, leading to failure, illustrating the immense obstacles in attaining a superior option, contributed to this effect. Adults' judgments, as explored in Study 2, were influenced by constraints distinct from those highlighted in the initial narratives, demonstrating a generalized effect. Observing the strong resolve of others, one must consider the fairness of judging those facing less desirable circumstances. APA holds the copyright for PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023.

The memories we cherish about people dictate our future relations. Nonetheless, though we might forget the exact words or deeds of others, we usually remember impressions conveying the fundamental nature of their actions—whether sincere, convivial, or comical. Based on fuzzy trace theory, we propose two modalities of social impression development: summaries based on ordinal distinctions (more capable, less capable) or categorical distinctions (capable, incapable). We posit that individuals are drawn to the most straightforward representation, and that differing memory modalities exert unique effects on social decision-making processes. Ordinal impressions guide decisions based on comparative standing, whereas categorical impressions drive choices using discrete behavioral classifications. Four distinct investigations involved participants learning about two groups of individuals who demonstrated differing degrees of competence (Studies 1a, 2, and 3), or displayed contrasting levels of generosity (Study 1b). Participants, utilizing ordinal rankings for impressions, prioritized hiring or supporting a relatively skilled member of a lower-performing group over a relatively unskilled member of a high-performing group, despite both targets exhibiting identical conduct and accuracy being rewarded. Despite this, when participants were equipped with categorical boundaries to interpret behaviors, this preference was no longer evident. In a conclusive trial, altering the classification participants employed for evaluating others' generosity modified their judgments, even with the precision of recalling exact specifics factored in. The study links social perceptions to theories of mental representation in memory and judgment, showcasing how diverse mental representations lead to varied social decision-making outcomes. All rights to this PsycINFO database record from 2023 are reserved by the APA.

Research using experimental methods has established that a mindset focused on the advantageous effects of stress can be instilled and yield improved outcomes by showcasing the enhancing nature of stress. Nevertheless, research findings, media representations, and individual stories regarding the enervating impact of stress could potentially oppose this perspective. As a result, the traditional method of emphasizing a desirable mental frame of reference without providing participants with tools to handle contrary thought patterns might not be long-lasting in the presence of conflicting knowledge. How can this limitation be effectively surmounted or resolved? Three randomized controlled interventions are presented to determine the efficiency of a metacognitive procedure. This method provides participants with a more comprehensive view of stress, alongside metacognitive knowledge about their mindset's power. This empowers them to choose a more adaptable mindset, even amidst conflicting information. Employees within the metacognitive mindset intervention group in Experiment 1, at a large finance company, showed substantial growth in stress-is-enhancing mindsets along with enhanced self-reported physical health, and improvements in interpersonal skill and work performance, four weeks after the intervention, as compared to the waitlist control group. The electronic distribution of Experiment 2, using multimedia modules, maintains its impact on stress mindset and associated symptoms. Experiment 3 explores the effectiveness of a metacognitive stress mindset intervention, setting it against a more traditional method of stress mindset manipulation. Utilizing a metacognitive approach produced larger initial gains in the perception that stress is beneficial compared to the typical intervention, and these gains were maintained after contact with opposing information. Taken concurrently, these results indicate that a metacognitive approach can be useful for changing mindsets. The American Psychological Association's 2023 PsycInfo Database Record has all rights reserved, as per copyright laws.

Although individuals dedicate themselves to valued goals, it is not guaranteed that everyone's efforts will be perceived as equally successful. This research investigates the inclination to leverage social class as a signal for interpreting the significance of others' objectives. 2′,3′-cGAMP datasheet In six studies, a goal-value bias was identified: Observers assessed goals as more valuable to higher-class individuals than to lower-class individuals across a spectrum of domains (Studies 1-6). Pilot study findings suggest a disconnect between these perceptions and the factual reality, with a heightened bias observed in those strongly motivated to rationalize inequality (Studies 5 and 6), implying a motivated cognitive process. Our research examines the implications of bias, uncovering that Americans tend to afford better opportunities to, and show preference for collaboration with, higher socioeconomic individuals than lower socioeconomic individuals, showcasing discriminatory outcomes that are partly influenced by the perceived value of goals (Studies 2, 3, 4, 6). Biology of aging The findings suggest a belief among Americans that higher-class citizens place a greater emphasis on achieving objectives than their lower-class peers, thus prompting greater support for those already thriving. The APA maintains all rights to the 2023 PsycINFO database record.

Semantic memory, a facet of cognition, typically retains its strength during typical aging, whereas episodic memory often experiences some degree of diminishment. The early stages of Alzheimer's disease dementia show a concurrent and progressive deterioration in the abilities of semantic and episodic memory. Given the imperative to identify sensitive and readily accessible cognitive indicators for early dementia detection, we analyzed older adults without dementia to ascertain whether item-level metrics of semantic fluency, in connection with episodic memory decline, improved upon existing neuropsychological measures and the total fluency score. Within the Washington Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project cohort, a group of 583 English-speaking participants (mean age = 76.3 ± 68) underwent up to five visits over a period of up to 11 years. We studied the interplay between semantic fluency metrics and subsequent memory performance deterioration via latent growth curve models, considering age and the recruitment wave as covariates. Item-level metrics, such as lexical frequency, age of acquisition, and semantic neighborhood density, correlated with diminished episodic memory, even after controlling for other cognitive assessments, unlike the standard total score. medicine information services Moderation analyses indicated no variations in the association between semantic fluency metrics and memory decline based on race, sex/gender, or educational level.