These circulating AGE can deposit in the kidney and cause cellula

These circulating AGE can deposit in the kidney and cause cellular dysfunction and renal damage. Elevated serum and urine levels of the AGE pentosidine can be detected

by HPLC or ELISA and help to predict the development of diabetic nephropathy.17 In addition, plasma levels of pentosidine have been shown to increase with loss of residual renal function in patients on peritoneal dialysis and to decrease with patients recovering renal function after transplantation.19,20 The excretion rate of albumin is the most commonly used biomarker of renal injury. Albumin is the most abundant protein in the circulation and during normal kidney function very little intact albumin is excreted by the kidney (<30 mg/day in humans). However, following renal injury, glomerular filtration of albumin is increased and the selleck chemicals llc reabsorption and degradation of albumin by tubules are decreased, resulting check details in increased levels of intact albumin in the urine (i.e. albuminuria). Patient albuminuria is usually classified by ranges of severity, which are: microalbuminuria (30–300 mg/day), macroalbuminuria (300 mg–3 g/day) and nephritic range albuminuria (>3 g/day). Albuminuria is commonly used as

an early marker of renal injury because it often precedes a decline in renal function. However, it cannot distinguish different types of proteinuric kidney disease and has a limited ability to predict disease progression and determine therapeutic efficacy. Albuminuria is commonly measured by immunological

techniques, which include: immunonephelometry, immunoturbidimetry, radioimmunoassay and ELISA.21 These techniques are good for assessing albumin excretion, which is distinctly higher than normal. However, newer HPLC-based methods (e.g. the Accumin Test) can identify both immunoreactive and non-immunoreactive albumin providing greater sensitivity than conventional immunological methods for distinguishing microalbuminuria from normal PAK5 albumin excretion.22,23 Podocyte injury is a feature of many kidney diseases that is postulated to increase glomerular filtration of albumin. Severely damaged podocytes can detach from the glomerular basement membrane and be collected in the urine sediment. Analysis of the urine sediment by quantitative PCR or ELISA can determine mRNA or protein levels of podocyte-specific molecules (e.g. nephrin, podocin, podocalyxin) as markers of podocyte injury. Increased urine sediment levels of nephrin and podocin have been detected in patients with diabetic nephropathy and active lupus nephritis.24,25 Similarly, increased levels of podocalyxin have been found in the urine sediment of patients with IgA nephropathy, lupus nephritis and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.26 Sensitive markers of tubular injury have been identified in acute and CKD. N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase is a proximal tubular lysosomal enzyme, which is released during damage to proximal tubules.

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