PPIases also prevent aggregation of antibody fragments ( Feige et al., 2010). Kappa light chain variable domains (Vκ) contain two conserved prolines in the cis conformation AG-014699 supplier at positions L8 and L95 ( Bothmann and Pluckthun, 2000) unlike the frameworks of heavy chain variable (VH) and lambda light chain variable (Vλ) antibody domains which, based on evaluation of sequences in the PDB database, do not

contain any cis-prolines ( Horne and Young, 1995). Cis-trans isomerization at Pro-L95 is a rate limiting step in the folding of Vκ domains and is essential for VL/VH docking and therefore for native protein conformation ( Suominen et al., 1987, Knappik and Pluckthun, 1995, Forsberg LY2109761 cost et al., 1997 and Ramm and Pluckthun, 2000). Interestingly, co-expression of the periplasmic Escherichia coli PPIase, FkpA, resulted in a significant improvement in secretion into the bacterial periplasm of functional scFv fragments containing either Vκ chains, which contain cis prolines, or Vλ chains which do not contain cis-prolines, suggesting that it has both molecular chaperone and PPIase enzymatic activities ( Bothmann and Pluckthun, 2000). Employing FkpA deletion mutants and functional assays, Saul et al. (2004) established that the FkpA carboxy and amino terminal domains carry independent PPIase and chaperone activities,

respectively. Previously, Missiakas et al. (1996) demonstrated that FkpA mafosfamide can act as a “global folding catalyst” that limits the levels of unfolded proteins in the outer membrane and periplasm. Periplasmic overexpression of FkpA facilitates the expression of multiple heterologous proteins, including an E. coli maltose binding protein misfolding mutant ( Arie et al., 2001), single-chain antibodies and antibody fusions ( Arie et al., 2001, Zhang et al., 2003, Padiolleau-Lefevre et al., 2006 and Sonoda et al., 2010). Another molecular chaperone in the E. coli periplasm is the 17 kDa Skp protein which forms a trimer with a central cavity. This cavity allows Skp to engulf native polypeptide substrates and prevents their subsequent aggregation (

Walton et al., 2009). Co-expression of Skp with a poorly soluble single chain Ab resulted in its secretion into the E. coli periplasm as well as improved solubility and phage display of the antibody fragment and diminished the toxicity of the antibody for the host cells ( Hayhurst and Harris, 1999). As observed with FkpA, other groups have demonstrated that co-expression of scFvs with Skp increased their secretion in E. coli ( Sonoda et al., 2010). Previously, it also was shown that overexpression of Skp lacking its signal sequence significantly improved the yield of a correctly folded Fab produced by a trxBgor mutant E. coli strain that enables the production of disulphide bonds in the bacterial cytoplasm ( Levy et al.

g. on boulders in the Asko area ( Wallin et al. 2011), on ascidians in Gullmar Raf inhibitor Fjord, Skagerrak ( Johansson et al. 1998) or on barnacles Balanus improvisus off the island of Rügen, where they formed small mat-like patches up to 3 cm in diameter ( Rathsack-Künzenbach 1961). Rose-pink trichomes

of Spirulina rosea Crouan were found on experimental colonisation plates deployed in the Gulf of Gdańsk at locations close to Gdynia and Gdańsk ( Dziubińska & Janas 2007) and Hel ( Dziubińska & Szaniawska 2010). Spirulina major Kützig was recorded in the southern Baltic and in Puck Bay ( Pliński, 1975 and Ringer, 1984). Solitary blue-green trichomes of S. subsalsa were noted earlier in Puck Bay ( Witkowski 1993). Our observations were made in mid-November, when the sun was relatively low above the horizon (solar elevation angle at noon – 17°) and the day length did not exceed 9 hours. After a few days in the laboratory at a photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) of 10 μE m− 2 s− 1, red trichomes of S. subsalsa started to change colour to blue-green. Such a change in colour is possible as cyanobacteria have a wide range of pigment compounds, including carotenoids, chlorophyll and

phycobiliproteins (red phycoerythrin and blue phycocyanin). Chromatic acclimation in cyanobacteria, i.e. their ability to adapt to changing characteristics see more of the spectral distribution of ambient light, was described e.g. by Gutu & Kehoe (2012). Indeed, because of the optical properties of seawater, cells at the surface and in deeper parts of the water column experience different light conditions in terms of both the amount (intensity) and quality (colour) of light resources. Dera & Woźniak (2010) showed that already at a depth of 6 m in the Baltic Sea the spectrum of PAR irradiance becomes narrower, as the long waves are attenuated by water molecules; the mean daily dose of downward irradiance in PAR also decreases dramatically with water depth: in November it is 10 times lower at 8 m depth than at the water surface. Spirulina can Dichloromethane dehalogenase react to such differences

in light conditions by changing its pigment compound composition and increasing or decreasing the proportion of phycobiliproteins. It is worth noting that all the observations of red Spirulina reported here were made in autumn (from mid-September to mid-November). Dziubińska & Janas (2007) and Dziubińska & Szaniawska (2010) studied the seasonality in composition of fouling communities on experimental plates deployed at three sites in the Gulf of Gdańsk. In spring and summer Spirulina was not present on any of them. It appeared on the plates only in autumn, i.e. September or October, depending on the site and year. The autumnal development of mats of phycoerythrin-rich S. subsalsa in this area is possible as a result of chromatic adaptation (also responsible for the red colour of trichomes).

Thrombolytic therapy was provided in about 5% of patients of the network compared with 0.4% of those in control hospitals. This means that use of rtPA in network hospitals was increased 10-fold. Safety data showed that administration of rtPA within the TEMPiS network is safe. The rate of symptomatic haemorrhage of 9% and in-hospital

mortality of 10% is in line with other safety data outside clinical trials [14], [15] and [16]. But effectiveness was not only shown in comparison with community hospitals but as well with stroke centres. Between 2003 and 2004, 170 patients received rtPA in the network hospitals and 132 patients in the two stroke centres. Baseline data of these patients were comparable. see more Mortality rates as well as good functional outcome after 6 months did not differ in patients treated in network community hospitals or in stroke centres [17]. Ceritinib chemical structure Teleconsultation may not be limited to workstations in the hospital requiring the continuous presence of a stroke neurologist in the hospital since TEMPiS provides an immediate answer to stroke calls made from network hospitals and start of the video conference within 3 min. Since mobile network computers are increasingly

available, we investigated the quality of mobile versus stationary telemedical stroke consultation. Between June and August 2007 a total of 223 teleconsultations with video-examination were conducted. Significant differences were assessed for teleconsultants’ ratings of video and audio quality with better results for the hospital-based system and worse audio quality for the ratings from doctors in the local hospitals for the mobile

teleconsultations. PTK6 However, the overall quality of the teleconsultations taking the patient perspective was not different and the clinical relevance of teleconsultations was rated high for both forms of teleconsultations. Therefore mobile teleconsultation using the available European mobile network technology provides good feasibility and stability. Whether a mobile or a hospital based solution is preferred may also depend on individual structures of networks and the frequency of teleconsultations. As during nighttimes the number of teleconsultations is lower [18], here the mobile solution may be favoured in order to reduce hospital nights of teleconsultants and costs of staffing [19]. Telemedic stroke care should provide more than just expert phone care or teleradiology but combine real-time video conference and electronic transmission of cerebral imaging data. Phone based stroke and rtPA care only have been shown to lead to a poorer outcome and higher mortality compared to patients treated in specialised stroke wards [20].

To assess the intrinsic variability of the integrity tests and the effect of the human donor on the results, the overall, the inter-donor and the intra-donor variabilities Cabozantinib were calculated for TEER, TEWL, TWF and BLUE (Table 8). For TEER, CVs for the overall, the inter-donor and the intra-donor variability were 64%, 45% and 43%, respectively. This implies that the variability of the method, given as the intra-donor variability, is close to the inter-donor variability and therewith covering the donor effect. The same is true for the other integrity tests (TEWL, TWF and BLUE), for which the donor

effect was also close to the method variability. Therewith, a clear separation of human donors based on the integrity test results is hardly possible. Additionally, means and overall variability of the different integrity tests were calculated for full-thickness and dermatomed human skin separately (data not shown).

In general, the values were close within each integrity test. For instance, TWF results were 302 ± 188 ∗ 10−5 cm h−1 (n = 20, CV = 62%) and 248 ± 146 ∗ 10−5 cm h−1 (n = 20, CV = 59%) for dermatomed and full-thickness skin from the same human donors, respectively. This is in line with the previously reported comparability of absorption results through both skin preparation types ( Guth, 2013). Furthermore, the donor effect was consistent over all methods with values ranging from 32% to 48%. These values were also in line with the general donor effect observed for Resveratrol dermal absorption SB431542 cell line experiments in vitro being ∼43% ( Southwell et al., 1984). The overall method variabilities determined in this study for four different test

compounds are with CVs of 33% and 45% for maxKp and AD, respectively, in line with the reported variability ranging from 2% to 111% ( Southwell et al., 1984 and van de Sandt et al., 2004). The method variabilities obtained for all five integrity tests, including ISTD, are in the same range (30–57%). The ISTD is advantageous over the ‘solitary’ integrity tests conducted in advance or after an absorption experiment, since outliers or abnormalities observed for the kinetics of the test compound can be interpreted in parallel with the kinetics of the ISTD. For instance, an abrupt increase of absorption of the test compound after the washing procedure is classified as a wash-in effect due to mechanical disruption of the barrier if the ISTD shows a parallel effect, or it is classified as a substance-specific wash-in effect if the absorption of the ISTD is not affected. The latter case – washing increases the test compound absorption – can be relevant for regulatory purposes. In addition, formulation-related barrier impairment could be identified.

A recent report by EURL-ECVAM on alternative methods ( Zuang et al., 2013) also provided an update on the regulatory validation of several in vitro assays. To date EpiOcular EIT has passed initial validation studies ( Zuang et al., 2013) and guidelines are currently being drafted by the OECD (2014b). The HET and IRE have been rejected by ICCVAM while the EURL-ECVAM has requested further optimization of the test protocol. We have presented an overview of current practices

in ocular toxicity selleck screening library testing. While progress has been made in developing a range of alternative techniques to in vivo testing, further progress is required to reduce the dependency of toxicity testing on live animals. Among the issues that need to be addressed by regulatory bodies is whether Draize testing should still be considered as the “gold standard” and whether results obtained from such testing used to validate or evaluate alternative tests. In order to advance alternative testing methodologies, there needs to be active engagement and dialog between scientific and regulatory communities. The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest. Funding from EPSRC Engineering, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative

Medicine Fellowship (E-TERM, Grant number: EP/1017801/1) and the University of Nottingham HERMES Fellowship (Grant number: 13b/I9) is gratefully acknowledged. “
“The following corrections should be read in this check details article:

BMDL(ID)s in Table 1: • % deformed sperm heads: is 143,867 ng/g lipid, not 2968 as printed; BMDL of PROD in males (Table 1 and text, Section 3.9) is 0.5 mg/kg bw, not 1.3. In Table 1, footnote ‘a’ also applies to the CYP1A2 mRNA in females. In Fig. 4B, horizontal axis units should be read as log10 ng pentaBDE per mg liver lipid instead of per 10 μg liver lipid. In the text, Section 2.10, the sentence explaining conversion of external to internal doses using a regression equation should be ignored. In Section 3.9, the last sentence of the second paragraph should read: The effect Tolmetin size in the highest dosis showed a decreasing trend for some of these drug metabolism related parameters (Supplementary Table 9). These corrections do not affect the interpretations and conclusions of the paper. “
“The author regrets that the following error has inadvertently appeared in the above article. In Table 1 on page 82, in the first column, in the ninth line from the top, the term should have read ‘genistein’ instead of ‘genestin’. Please see below the corrected Table 1. “
“This article has been removed: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/withdrawalpolicy). This article has been removed at the request of the Author. This abstract was inadvertently published in the journal when the authors had requested that it should not.

After dermal application of 1023 μg/cm2 equivalents, IR3535® was slowly cleared from rat skin with

an approximately 50% reduction in residual concentration occuring over a time period of 48 h. The identity of the radioactivity remaining in skin was not determined. The metabolite IR3535®-free acid 2 is expected to be exclusively excreted with urine due to its high polarity and molecular weight well below the threshold for biliary elimination in humans GSK-3 inhibition (MW 550 Da). Moreover, IR3535®1 is of insufficient volatility to be cleared to a larger extent by exhalation. The data on plasma concentrations show a rapid absorption and excretion of dermally applied IR3535® since the concentration of IR3535®-free acid 2 in plasma already decreases after 4 h and reaches the LOQ at the 24 h sampling point. Despite applying very similar doses of IR3535® to the skin and almost identical mean recoveries of IR3535®-free acid 2 in urine, peak plasma concentrations of IR3535®-free acid 2 were twofold higher in male human subjects as compared to the female humans subjects in the study. The basis for these differences is not known and may be due to gender differences

in absorption, distribution, AZD4547 mw and biotransformation of IR3535®. Due to the rapid absorption and elimination, the recovered amount of IR3535®-free acid 2 in urine represents the extent of absorption of IR3535®1 through the skin in humans. Absorption of IR3535®1 in humans therefore is 13.3% ( Table 6) which is less than half of that observed

through the skin in experimental animals or in vitro. The formulation contains the known skin penetration enhancers ethanol, PEG-8 and PEG-32 at concentrations of 35.0, 5.0 and 4.0%, respectively ( Table Clomifene 1). Therefore, the determined penetration rate of 13.3% for IR3535 can reasonably be considered as a worst-case value for skin absorption. Thomas H. Broschard, Anja M. Bohlmann and Stefan Konietzny are employees from Merck KGaA, which is a producer of IR3535®. This study was supported by Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany. The authors thank Jutta zur Lage, Nataly Bittner, Heike Keim-Heusler, and Ursula Tatsch for excellent technical assistance. “
“The authors regret an error in the captions for Figs. 10 and 11 in the abovementioned published paper. ‘DMP1(-IRE)’ should have read ‘DMT1(-IRE)’ throughout. Corrected captions for Figures 10 and 11 are given below. Fig. 10 Effect of Pb exposure on DMT1(-IRE) and FP1 expression in the cerebral cortex samples through immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemical images of the temporal area of the cerebral cortex demonstrated the expression of DMT1(-IRE) and FP1 (scale bar = 100 μm). (A) Immunohistochemistry with the DMT1(-IRE) and FP1 antibodies in the temporal area of the cerebral cortex. (B) Quantification of the protein levels is represented as the mean IOD in the temporal and parietal areas of the cerebral cortex. Values represent means ± S.E.M.s.

For RF and BF, SENIAM recommendations were used (Hermens et al., 1999). Data was recorded at a sample rate of 2000 samples/s with a multichannel Porti5 EMG system (TMS-international, Enschede, The Netherlands; Hu et al., 2010a). Four clusters of three LED Markers each were fixed onto small lightweight custom-made triangular frames, and attached halfway along the upper and lower legs for registration with a 2 × 3 camera system (OPTOTRAK 3020, Northern Digital, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada), connected via a synchronization cable to the Porti5 EMG system. To

determine leg movements, the heights of the centers of the clusters were calculated. The kinematic sampling frequency was 50 samples/s. The ASLR was performed in supine position with the

feet 20 cm apart (Mens et al., 2001). Subjects were instructed to raise one leg until the heel was 20 cm above the table, without bending the knees, and keeping the leg elevated selleck screening library for about Vorinostat in vitro 10 s (“Normal”). To increase statistical precision, this was done three times per leg per condition. After every ASLR, subjects were asked to relax for approximately 10 s. The whole procedure was repeated with a weight added just above the ankle (“Weight”), so that the static moment of the leg with respect to the hip was increased by 50%. To calculate the required amount of weight (Zatsiorsky, 2002; p. 605), manually measured lower extremity anthropometry was used. Finally, the ASLR was repeated with a non-elastic pelvic belt (“Belt”; 3221/3300, Rafys, Hengelo, The Netherlands),

just below the ASIS (Damen et al., 2002; Mens et al., 2006), with a tension of 50 N (Vleeming et al., 1992; Mens et al., 1999), fine-tuned with an inbuilt gauge. Data was analyzed with MATLAB 7.4 (The Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA). Kinematic data were filtered with a 4th order bi-directional low pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 5 Hz. We determined the onset and the peak of leg raise, i.e., the first point with zero velocity before/after a peak in velocity. Leg raise velocity was calculated as the height of peak position divided by the time to reach peak position. Due to technical problems with the amplifier, TA EMG was not usable in four subjects, PLEK2 which left twelve valid datasets for TA. EMG data were high-pass filtered at 250 Hz (1st order Butterworth; Hu et al., 2010a), then full-wave rectified, and low-pass filtered at 5 Hz (2nd order Butterworth). The median amplitude during ASLR plateau (5 through 10 s after movement onset) was calculated. To quantify the asymmetry of activity of TA, OI, and OE, an Asymmetry Index was calculated as: (ipsilateral − contralateral) activity/(ipsilateral + contralateral) activity × 100%, “ipsilateral” and “contralateral” referring to the leg being raised. Positive values indicate more ipsilateral, negative values more contralateral muscle activity. Outliers were identified from box plots (Figs.

Additionally, percent solids were determined for sediment and marine biota samples by Method SM2540G. Alkylated PAHs were extracted by EPA 3550 and 3540 and analyzed by EPA 8270 using GC–MS-SIM. PAHs are reported as sums, usually mg/kg. (Data regarding reporting and detection limits are available upon request to the authors.) In a second set of analyses, investigations into sample identification and provenance included two levels of analytical procedures, as described by Hansen et al. (2007), OSINE, 2011 and CEN, 2012. Firstly, total extractable n-alkanes (C11–C60) were measured using GC-FID (EPA Method 3580/8000-GC-FID) for reference

samples, and pre-well-capping, post-well-capping, and post-Hurricane Isaac environmental samples. Buparlisib purchase Secondly, concentrations of PAHs, alkylated PAHs, and biomarkers were measured using GS–MS. For water samples, PAHs and alkylated Epacadostat nmr PAHs were measured using GS–MS EPA Method 3510/8270 ( US-EPA, 2007) and results were provided in μg/L. Mousse, tarballs, and aerosol samples were analyzed for PAHs and alkylated PAHs using GC–MS EPA Method 3540/8270 ( US-EPA, 2007), and results have been given in mg/kg. Water-saturated sediment was collected manually by snorkeling. A Ponar-type dredge sampler was used to collect sediment samples in waters >3 m deep. Sediment samples were

also collected from deep water from an area 50 km in diameter around the Macondo wellhead using a multiple corer. Samples were collected 2 months after the wellhead had been capped. Samples were frozen on shipboard and shipped to the laboratory for processing and analysis. Analyses of sediment and biota samples were performed by ALS Laboratory Group (C9936 67th Ave., NW, Edmonton, AB Canada T6E OPS). TPHs (C11–C60) were measured by GC-FID Scan and by

Method Reference EPA 3550/8000-GC-FID. Results were provided in mg/kg. PAHs and Alkylated PAHs were measured using Method Reference EPA 3540/8270 GC/MS. Those results were provided in mg/kg. Sediment samples were also analyzed at Pace Analytical, located in St Rose, Louisiana. Pace sediment samples were analyzed for PAHs and Alkylated PAK5 PAHs using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and Method Reference EPA 8015, modifications 6010, 7471, and 8260. Results were provided in mg/kg. For sediment and biota samples, the Reporting Limit (RL) changed repeatedly depending upon the amount (%) of solids present in the samples. These values are available for viewing upon request. Seawater samples were collected from just below the ocean surface using a Wildco vertical PVC sampler, and stored in Nalgene bottles, on ice, at <4 °C. All samples were processed by EPA-certified laboratories – Sherry Laboratories in Lafayette, LA; Hampton Clarke Veritech in Fairfield, NJ; ALS Laboratory Group, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; and Pace Laboratory in St. Rose, LA, USA.

Despite these published works, the studies with Peruvian scorpions are still very preliminary. In view of the lack of information on the general characteristics of Hadruroides scorpion venoms, the main goal of this work was to report

additional biochemical and toxic characterization of H. lunatus scorpion venom. In this paper, the hyaluronidase, proteolytic, phospholipase, cardiotoxic and lethal activities of H. lunatus crude venom were investigated. This communication also describes the separation of the soluble venom components by SDS-PAGE and by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Furthermore, the last this website part of this study shows, some immunological characteristics of soluble whole venom using specific polyclonal rabbit anti-H. lunatus antibodies. H. lunatus scorpions were collected in the region of Atocongo (Lima, Peru) and maintained in the herpetarium of the Centro Nacional de Producción de Biologicos of Instituto

Nacional de Salud (INS), in Lima, Peru. Scorpions were maintained in plastic boxes with water ad libitum and were fed weekly with cockroaches. The venom from mature scorpions was obtained by electrical stimulation (12 V) of the telsons. The venom collected Bleomycin order in micropipettes was diluted in ultrapure water, pooled and stored at −20 °C until use. The protein concentration was determined by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). Tityus serrulatus mature scorpions were collected in the region of Belo Horizonte and maintained at the “Seção de Animais Peçonhentos” of Ezequiel Dias Foundation (FUNED) of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. The crude venoms were obtained by electrical stimulation of the telsons, lyophilized and stored at −20 °C in the dark until use. The venoms from the scorpions Androctonus australis hector and Centruroides sculpturatus were obtained from the Laboratoire de Biochimie, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France and

from Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, USA, respectively. Male and female Swiss and C57BL/6 mice (weighing 18–22 g) and male Wistar rats (weighing 110–150 g) were maintained at the Centro de Bioterismo of the Instituto de Ciências Biológicas of the Universidade Teicoplanin Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil. All animals received water and food under controlled environmental conditions. The experimental protocols were approved by the “Ethics Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals of UFMG” (CETEA-UFMG). Eight- to nine-week-old New Zealand rabbits were used to produce anti-H. lunatus and anti-T. serrulatus sera. Animals were maintained and handled as described previously. The lethality was assessed by intraperitoneal (i.p.) and intracranial (i.c.) routes. For the intraperitoneal route, groups of four mice were injected with different doses of venom (from 11.53 mg to 32.95 mg per kg of body weight) dissolved in 0.5 mL of PBS–BSA 0.1%. For the intracerebroventricular route, groups of six mice were injected with various doses of venom (from 0.075 μg to 0.

4(a)). We determined whether miR-150 and SOCS1 mRNA levels were reciprocally regulated in DENV-2-infected PBMCs. DENV-2 infection induced the expression of SOCS1 after 24 h, and this was inversely correlated to the levels of miR-150 expression

(Fig. 4(b)). To demonstrate that miR-150 specifically down-regulated SOCS1 Selleck BIBF-1120 expression, we transfected a miR-150 mimic into CD14+ cells and assessed the reciprocal relationship between miR-150 and SOCS1 expression. Control CD14+ cells and those transfected with miR-150 for 24 h were infected with DENV-2 at an MOI of 5 in 24-well plates for 4 h, and then the expression of miR-150 and SOCS1 was assessed. Overexpression of miR-150 suppressed the DENV-2-induced expression of SOCS1 in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 4(c)). The outcomes of

DENV infections are dictated by a myriad of interactions between viral, immunological, and human genetic factors, as well as kinetic http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Avasimibe(CI-1011).html interactions between innate and adaptive immunity. The theory of viral virulence versus secondary immune enhancement in the pathogenesis of DENV infections has been a matter of debate for many years.24 and 25 Our group19 and 26 and others27 have previously shown that viral load is not significantly associated with DHF. Thus, the underlying mechanism of DHFV pathogenesis might be related to activation of virus-infected leukocytes, resulting in alteration of cytokine induction. In this study, we provide the first evidence showing that the suppression of SOCS-1 expression was correlated to augmented miR-150 expression in patients with DHF and in CD14+ monocytes infected

with DENV-2. The SOCS proteins are key negative regulators of cytokine signalling and the Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signalling pathway.28 Production of SOCS1 proteins may be induced by a wide range of stimuli, including lipopolysaccharide (LPS), TNFα, IL-6, and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β).29 and 30 Several reports link SOCS1 Amylase to the dysregulation of cytokine. SOCS1-deficient mice are hypersensitive to LPS, leading to an increase in TNFα and IL-12 production.31 and 32 Several mechanisms have been proposed for the suppression of cytokine production by SOCS1. An important mechanism for the suppression of macrophage activation is SOCS1-mediated inhibition of the secondarily activated JAK/STAT pathway.33 Wang et al.34 report that vesicular stomatitis virus-mediated induction of miR-155 occurred through a retinoic acid-inducible gene I/JNK/nuclear factor κB-dependent mechanism. Up-regulated miR-155 suppressed SOCS1 expression in macrophages and subsequently enhanced type I IFN effector gene expression, thereby suppressing viral replication. Notably, SOCS1 is also a tumour suppressor. Jiang et al.